Velociraptor (Swift Thief) is a genus of dromaeosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in Central Asia during the Late Cretaceous Period. It is one of the most well-known dinosaurs to have ever walked the Earth. However, it is unknown if the animal presented on Prehistoric Planet is actually Velociraptor itself, though it is still possible that it will turn out to be so once identified and thoroughly described in the future. For simplicity, the show simply refers to it as Velociraptor.
Both known species of Velociraptor, V. mongoliensis and V. osmolskae lived 75 - 71 million years ago, during the Campanian stage of the Late Cretaceous. V. mongoliensis, the more known species, was found in the Djadochta Formation, set in what would become the modern-day Gobi Desert in Mongolia, while V. osmolskae was found in the nearby Bayan Mandahu Formation in Inner Mongolia, China. Of note, however, is that the animal seen in Prehistoric Planet is not confirmed to be Velociraptor, and neither is it intended to be Adasaurus (a larger Deinonychus-sized velociraptorine with sickle toe claws that are smaller and blunter than those of Velociraptor), rather, it is a species of indeterminate velociraptorine found in some areas of east Asia, referred to as "Velociraptor" for convenience.[DN 1][DN 2][DN 3] It is possible that this unidentified animal may indeed be a new species of Velociraptor, however, and if that is the case, it would indicate Velociraptor's presence in the Nemegt Formation, 70 million years ago, during the Maastrichtian stage of the Late Cretaceous Period.[DN 1][9]
Velociraptor is a medium-sized dromaeosaur that was smaller than a turkey, reaching around 2.1 meters (7 feet) in length[1] and up to 20 kilograms (44 pounds) in weight.[2] It can be distinguished from other dromaeosaurs by its long, low skull that is 23 centimeters (9.1 inches) in length,[3] and upturned snout. As with all dromaeosaurs, Velociraptor is equipped with a sickle-shaped claw (in its case, 6.6 centimeters or 2.6 inches long)[8] on the second toe of each foot, fit for grappling and restraining prey. However, while perfect for puncturing flesh, tests showed that these sickle toe claws were not meant to tear and disembowel prey as was once believed.[10]
One female and two male Velociraptors carefully traversing a cliff face, aided by their finely-tuned sense of balance
“ Their bodies are kept warm by feathers, but they can't fly. They are, however, exceptionally agile, and just as well. One false step here could bring disaster. ”
As a dromaeosaur, Velociraptor had a large brain for its size, and its binocular field of view is given a conservative estimate of around 55 degrees when it tilts its head 10 degrees downward, same as that of T. rex, giving it excellent binocular vision wider than those of modern hawks.[4] Furthermore, a study in 2011 shows that, based on its scleral rings, Velociraptor possessed excellent scotopic (low-light) vision, and was thus a nocturnal predator.[11] In a 2022 study, the insides of the skull of Velociraptor specimen IGM 100/976 were reconstructed with the aid of X-ray computed microtomography, bringing parts like the brain cavity and the inner ear to light. The endocast showed that Velociraptor had large floccular lobes to maintain head and eye stability during quick movements, serving as evidence of its agile and active, predatory nature. Furthermore, the endocast also indicated that it possessed a wide hearing range of approximately 2.4 - 4 kilohertz, giving the animal auditory capabilities similar to those of common ravens and African penguins. Overall, the brain of a Velociraptor bears structures seen in modern birds, providing the dromaeosaur an exceptional sense of balance and agility,[5] vital for maintaining stability while navigating canyons, cliffs, and other similarly precarious terrains.
Feathers, Thermoregulation, and Metabolism[]
A Velociraptor sneaking up by the side of a cliff
“ Lightweight bodies and feathered arms help them to control their descent, and their broad tails assist them in keeping their balance. ”
As indicated by quill knobs on its arms and evidence of feathers in other dromaeosaurs, it is now strongly accepted that Velociraptor was fully-feathered.[DN 4] The first segment of Freshwater depicts their lightweight bodies and feathered arms and tails being used to balance and control their descent, which helps when navigating high, precarious cliffsides. Later on in the same segment, the feathers are also shown being used to cushion their bodies, with the female Velociraptor falling from a considerable height twice (not landing on her feet), also scraping her body against the rough cliff walls in the process, and yet, in the end, carried her prey and ran off with no signs of injury.
Velociraptors observing prey from atop a cliff in the sun-baked badlands of Mongolia
“ A downy coat may soften their image as scaly reptilian killers, but in fact, feathers would have made Velociraptors even more deadly, allowing them to attack unsuspecting prey where no other hunter would be able to venture. ”
Feathers also serve as an insulator for the animal, helping it retain heat during cool periods, and, conversely, keep cool in the heat of its desert habitat. Like most dinosaurs (especially active predators), Velociraptor is believed to be moderately endothermic (warm-blooded, primarily reliant on heat produced by the body), has a metabolism that is better than other reptiles (which are ectothermic, more reliant on the temperature of the environment, in essence, cold-blooded), but not as advanced as the metabolism of modern-day avian dinosaurs (birds) and mammals. A reconstruction of its nasal respiratory cavity suggests that Velociraptor and other non-avian dinosaurs did not have the well-developed nasal thermoregulation apparatus of modern birds; the nasal cavity of Velociraptor proved to be too narrow to house a well-developed respiratory turbinate, which is important in cooling the larger brains of extant birds and mammals.[12]
Juvenile Velociraptor concept art by Gabriel N. Ugueto
Prehistoric Planet depicts the Velociraptors with a full coat of feathers, black patches around the eyes, exposed, bare, leathery skin (with some keratinized areas) on their snouts, fingers, and legs, and undersides lighter in color compared to the rest of the body, giving them a degree of countershading (which many animals, predator and prey alike, use to enhance their camouflage depending on the light and angle at which they are viewed). The females having a white or gray coat (though one female in Badlands appears to have a black coat), with thick, white lines that run from their eyebrows down to their necks and across the midline of their bodies, separating the top from the lighter-colored undersides. The males have reddish integument, thinner white lines that only cover their eyebrows, and a band around their necks that is a lighter shade of red. The juveniles, which were designed by concept artist Gabriel Ugueto,[PhP 1] are dirty white and yellowish like desert sand, with black strikes and speckles to help camouflage them.
Velociraptor observing juvenile azhdarchids from atop a rock
Velociraptor first appears in the second segment of Deserts, hunting lizards running around a sleeping family of Tarbosaurus, accidentally waking one of the tyrannosaurs up while pursuing a lizard. The species next appeared in the first segment of Freshwater, where two males and one female scale a cliffside waterfall to hunt juvenile azhdarchids. A family of Velociraptors are shown in a maze of canyons in Badlands, where, taking advantage of the panic caused by a trio of Tarbosaurus, the dromaeosaurs hunt some Prenocephale to provide food for their hatchlings. Velociraptor also serves as the focus of the Prehistoric Planet: Uncovered segment "Did Velociraptor Have Feathers?", which discusses the several advantages their feathery coats provide.
“ The badlands of the Prehistoric Planet tests even dinosaurs to their limits. This strange landscape, carved by scouring winds and vast, ancient rivers might appear empty of life. But here in Asia, hidden in these narrow canyons, is a new family of Velociraptors. ”
Velociraptor lived 75 - 71 million years ago in Central Asia. V. mongoliensis is known from the Djadochta Formation in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia, while V. osmolskae lived in the nearby Bayan Mandahu Formation of Inner Mongolia, China. Both areas were known to have been deserts during the time of Velociraptor, just as presented on Prehistoric Planet.
However, the series is technically presenting an indeterminate velociraptorine found in Maastrichtian sites within Central Asia,[DN 1] with the implication being that it lived in the Nemegt Formation that succeeded the Barun Goyot Formation, the area that overlies the Djadochta Formation. The Nemegt Formation is known for its rich, humid environment full of large river channels, tidal flats, and forests (which corresponds with the waterfall cliffs the Velociraptors were scaling in Freshwater). However, the area is also known to have undergone periodic droughts, and there is precedence for arid regions much like the Gobi Desert today existing in Mongolia during those times, thus justifying the depiction of this indeterminate velociraptorine living in or at least traveling through a vast desert environment.
Paleofauna[]
The prominent sickle toe claws of Velociraptor
“ It might seem that, in such a barren place, they face an uncertain future. Their survival relies on a strange event not here, but miles from their home. ”
Regardless of its identity, given its habitat, this Nemegt velociraptorine would have lived in the shadow of medium and large theropods like Gallimimus, Alioramus, Deinocheirus, Therizinosaurus, and Tarbosaurus, the region's apex predator. Other massive animals in the Nemegt Formation include an unnamed azhdarchid, the ankylosaurid Tarchia, the saurolophine hadrosaur Barsboldia and sauropods like Nemegtosaurus, Opisthocoelicaudia, and other, larger titanosaurs that may potentially rival Argentinosaurus in size. The Nemegt velociraptorine would have hunted smaller creatures like Mononykus, Prenocephale, and oviraptorosaurs (at least eight are known in the area, and most of them are barely larger than Velociraptor itself). The Nemegt velociraptorine also coexisted with troodontids like Zanabazar and other dromaeosaurs, including several indeterminate dromaeosaur remains and Adasaurus mongoliensis (Evil Lizard), a close relative of Velociraptor that lived in the Nemegt Formation, clearly distinct given the fact that it is noticeably bigger (around the size of Deinonychus) and more robust than Velociraptor. Conversely, like Kuru kulla, another velociraptorine, the sickle toe claws of Adasaurus are highly reduced, smaller and blunter compared to the prominent ones of Velociraptor, indicating that Adasaurus did not use its sickle toe claws as much as other dromaeosaurs. Niche partitioning would have alleviated tensions between these small carnivores, though possible competition and confrontations between them would not have been completely negated.
Given its small size, Velociraptor would not have hunted big animals like fully-grown hadrosaurs, contrary to what has been shown in popular culture and media. However, it is still a vicious predator in its own right. While usually recognized as a predator of pig-sized animals like Protoceratops (especially following the discovery of the "Fighting Dinosaurs" fossil, which shows a Velociraptor and a Protoceratops that were presumably buried by sand while fighting each other), Velociraptor would have also gone after less risky prey like lizards, mammals, and, as seen on the show, small or juvenile pterosaurs, with an azhdarchid long bone in a Velociraptor's stomach serving as direct evidence that they at least scavenged the carcasses of azhdarchid pterosaurs in their area.[13]
Three Velociraptors fighting off juvenile azhdarchids, with one of them subdued via the raptor prey restraint
“ Only the Prenocephale can escape to higher ground. And this is what the Velociraptors have waited for. Now, the Velociraptors can finally spring their ambush. ”
Velociraptor has a slender skull (with 48.5% of its total surface area lightened up by fenestrae, openings in the skull),[7] a more ancestral trait inherited from the last common ancestor of dromaeosaurs and troodontids, which still retained gracile snouts. By comparison, the more robust rostrums of Dromaeosaurus and Deinonychus are considered more derived. Velociraptor's temporal muscle group possessed a mechanical advantage of 0.242, and its quadrate muscle group had a mechanical advantage of 0.395.[7] High mechanical advantages indicate that the jaws prioritized bite forces, while lower mechanical advantages like those of Velociraptor prioritized jaw closure speed. This is supported by the fact that Velociraptor did not have a strong bite force; a 2022 study suggests that a specimen with a skull width of 9.1 centimeters (3.6 inches) possesses an anterior (front) bite force of 131 newtons or 13.61 kilograms (30 pounds), and a posterior (back) bite force of 304 newtons or 31 kilograms (68.34 pounds).[6] On the other hand, the jaws of Velociraptor have a mesh-weighted arithmetic mean of 360 microstrain, indicating that it experienced low stress when biting, and therefore was highly resistant its own bite force. As is the case for modern-day birds and mammals, it is believed that carnivores with high bite force resistance were scavengers, more reliant on processing carrion, while those with low bite force resistance were more reliant on freshly-killed prey. All of these support the idea that Velociraptor regularly relied on scavenging more than hunting.[7]
Although Velociraptors appear to have relied more on scavenging, they are still capable of hunting and bringing down live prey, like Prenocephale
Even so, given other forms of evidence like the "Fighting Dinosaurs" fossil (with the pose of the Protoceratops indicating that it was alive and struggling prior to being buried alive with its attacker), Velociraptor clearly still has fearsome predatory capabilities, with its large floccular lobes keeping its head and eyes stable during quick, agile movements, and its hearing range being comparable to those of common ravens and African penguins.[5] Like most dromaeosaurs, Velociraptor likely relied on the "raptor prey restraint", a technique used by modern-day accipitrid birds of prey. This attack method involves leaping on the chosen target, with the predator using its body weight and sharp talons to puncture, grip, and secure the victim so it could be eaten while it is still alive. Though the arms of Velociraptor would have helped it grip prey, they were more likely used in conjunction with the stiff tail to stabilize the animal as it balanced atop its prey. It has been theorized that these predatory adaptations can help explain the origin of flapping in birds, the closest modern-day relatives of the dromaeosaurs.[14] And as with predatory birds today, Velociraptor is also shown relying on height and gravity as powerful, reliable killing tools, with one of them chasing a Prenocephale high up a cliffside for another Velociraptor to kick off.
To further make use of its powerful eyesight, Velociraptor relied on low-light conditions and events to hone in on its prey and ambush them. Animals may evolve low-light adaptations in response to the environment (e.g. to forage for food during the evening, relatively cooler than daytime), to avoid diurnal predators, to hunt prey that also comes out at night, or a combination of any of these factors. Based on the size of its eye sockets, Protoceratops had mesopic vision, able to engage in a cathemeral lifestyle (meaning that it was active throughout the day in short, irregular intervals, like lions). By comparison, Velociraptor had larger eyes that provided better vision than its prey in darkness, giving it an advantage over Protoceratops in certain conditions and events. For this reason, it is possible that the duel preserved in the "Fighting Dinosaurs" fossil took place at night or in circumstances with limited light, like a sandstorm, believed to be one likely reason why both combatants were buried alive.[11] If this is proven true, it would serve as a testament of the dromaeosaur's predatory cunning, showing that it is capable of exploiting and benefiting from the disastrous events of its harsh desert habitat, though, as shown by the "Fighting Dinosaurs" fossil, the willingness to take such risks is not always expected to end in a positive outcome for either predator or prey.
Social Behavior[]
A group of Velociraptors
“ A Velociraptor. Time to be careful, because Velociraptors often hunt... together. ”
While Velociraptors are often portrayed in popular culture as working in tightly-knit packs akin to wolves, it was more likely that Velociraptors temporarily hunted together in loose packs, engaging in situational pack-hunting similar to that of coyotes and modern birds of prey (which, as members of the Paraves clade, are technically dinosaurs and therefore modern-day relatives of dromaeosaurs like Velociraptor). Evidence of dromaeosaurs living (or at least moving) together comes in the form of a trackway discovered in Shandong, China in 2007, footprints left behind by six Achillobator-sized dromaeosaurs traveling together down a shoreline (though it is also possible that these tracks were left by separate individuals that just so happened to travel down the same path at different times).[15] Current ideas suggest that, when hunting as pack, they would converge on their prey, mobbing it much like Komodo Dragons do today, before going their separate ways. In the first segment of Freshwater, one female and two male Velociraptors are shown grouping up to hunt pterosaurs, but they still prefer to attack individually, secure their own prey, and depart once they got what they needed.
Velociraptor family feeding on a freshly-slain Prenocephale
“ At last. Working together, they have secured a meal for the whole family. The Tarbosaurs have also had success. For predators, it's actually a time of plenty. And for the Velociraptors, the perfect time to start a family. ”
As demonstrated by fossilized evidence of their interactions with Protoceratops, Velociraptors were capable of hunting alone when going after prey their own size, which is seen to a degree in the second segment of Deserts. While the Velociraptors were stated to "often hunt together", prowling in the same area for the same lizards to feed on, they were not really planning out coordinated strategies, and were more or less just hunting for their own individual meals at the same time. However, in the second segment of Badlands, justified pack-hunting behavior is depicted in the form of a pair raising hatchlings together, with a female Velociraptor chasing a Prenocephale up a ledge where her mate can ambush the target and kick it off the cliff to its demise, securing a meal for both of them and their chicks.
Gallery[]
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